Accommodation Kalami Corfu

Mythology for the name of Ionian Sea

Io, the princess of Argos, was the priestess of Hera. Zeus fell in love with her. In order to avoid Hera’s suspicions, he turned Io into a white heifer.

Zeus was with Io in the clouds when Hera was looking for him, she saw him with Io. Zeus pretended that he had never seen that cow before and offered Io as a present to Hera, who in turn sent her away having Argus – who had hundred eyes – to watch her. Zeus sent god Hermes, who lulled Argus to sleep and eventually killed him. After Io was free, she wandered trying to avoid Hera’s range.

So, the Ionian Sea was named after her wanderings in her attempt to escape. On her travels, she met Prometheus who told her that she would get back her human form again, but she would have been wandering for many years. Io’s wanderings finished to Nile, where she re-obtained her human nature and delivered her son, Epaphus. Many generations after him, Hercules was born and he was the one who set Prometheus free.

Corfu Island’ s Ancient Names

Corfu has a long history through the ages. Corfu was named Corkyra, who was a naias nymph of the Argolis, daughter of the river Assopos. She was abducted by Poseidon, the god of sea, to the island and bore his son, Phaiax. Since then, the inhabitants of the island were called Phaecians, as mentioned by Homer.

Another name of Corfu in the ancient times was Drepane, – which means scythe – because of its shape.

According to Homer, Corfu was also named Scheria. The Phaecians had moved from Hyperia. King Nausithus surrounded the city with walls, built houses and temples in order to protect his people from the Cyclops, who plundered them.

After the Greeks had conquered Troy, Ullysses, the most well known hero, started his adventurous return journey back to Ithaca, which lasted 10 whole years. The reason for this long delay was the implacable hatred that god Poseidon had against Ullysses, as he was the one who had blinded his son, the Cyclops Polyphemus, so he continuously restrained him from arriving home by generating tempest, which wrecked his boat. But Athena, who was the goddess of wisdom, battle and war and certain crafts, protected him (at those times the gods of Olympus had their own friends and enemies!), she ceased the tempests and led his craft into an island. So Ullysses reached the coast of Corfu and fell asleep.

At those times, Alkinoos, son of Nausithus, was the king of the Phaecians. Nausica, his daughter, being pushed by Athena in her dreams, went with her maids to the river to wash the clothes; she found Ullysses and gave him shelter in the palace. In this way Homer shows that hospitality was very important to the Greeks since the ancient years. After Ullysses had recounted his adventures, King Alcinoos offered him a ship, properly equipped, to take him back to Ithaca. He was also the king who gave shelter to Jason and the Argonauts from the Colchains who pursued them after they had stolen the Golden Fleece from Colchis with the help of the sorceress and the princess of Colchis Medea. It was a quest to bring it back to the king of Iolcus, Pelia, who had overthrown his father, in order to take the kingdom back in his hands.

The name of Corfu is also related with Gorgyra or Gorgo, the monstrous Medusa, who was snake-haired and had the power to transform everyone looking at her into stone. Perseus with the aid of goddess Athena managed to kill her, cutting of her head, as Medusa was one of the three Corgons who was mortal. Pegasos (the winged horse) and Chrysaor were born from her blood.

Medusa is depicted on the west façade of the Doric Temple of Artemis, in Kanoni peninsula in Corfu. The “Gorgo pediment” is the oldest archeological finding (590-580 BC – Middle Archaic Period) of the excavations in Greece (Archeological Museum of Corfu).

It is also said that the name Corfu is derived from the corypho = coryphi (peak), by the twin peaks of the Corfu town where the old fortress is located.

Paleolithic Period & History (734 – 229 BC) of Corfu

Human remains and tools have been found mainly in the southwest of Corfu (Gardiki), which indicates that the island was inhabited since the Paleolithic period (30.000 – 7.000 BC). The first acknowledged Neolithic (6000 BC) settlement was discovered in the north of Corfu, in the area of Sidari, which continued until the Bronze Age. There have also been discovered similar findings from that age in the southwest Corfu, as Kefali, Afiona and Ermones.

The Greek speakers, Eretrians, from Euboia in the middle of 8th century BC, colonized Corfu for the first time. The Illyrians, the previous residents of the island, were displaced to the center of the island. The Eretrians were staying near to the Yllicos Port, where the lake of Chalikiopoulos is now located. The Corinthians, with their leader Hersikratos, were settled in the island in 734 BC and occupied it, assimilating the Liburnians, who were living on the island. The colony had a quick development; it became an independent state, winning a battle against the old metropolis during the 7th century (Thucydides, “Kerkyraika”).

The Corfiots together with the Vackhiades managed to obtain power over the other colonies, Sicily and Illyria and they became a threat to the Corinthians. They established the prosperous first colony, Epidamno, in 625 BC. (known as Dyrachio today). The Corinthian tyrant, Periandros, managed to defeat them.

The Corinthian influence, mostly during the Periandros’ tyranny, was extremely significant for the economical development and the flourishing of the Corinthian art. There are still remnants from important monuments such as the circular cenotaph of Menekratus (Kyprou str.) aged around the end of 7th century BC. and the Doric Temple of Artemis on the west of Monastery of Ag. Theodoron.

After Periandros died, Corfu, being a free island, became a flourishing commercial center due to the commercial transactions with the other areas. According to the archeological findings, the center of the town was in Paleopolis and the Alcinoos’ Port. Houses had been built on the west side of the Kanoni Peninsula, and the holy place of goddess Hera and Apollona, the Corkyrian, was on the east side, above the hills (Mon Repo). The cemetery was outside the town, in the area of Garitsa in Corfu.

In 435 BC there was a big crisis in the relationship between Corinth and Corfu. Athens, on the other hand, was trying to extend its economical and political influence to the west. Corfu made an alliance with the Athenians, which resulted in the beginning of the Peloponnesian War. This crisis was also because of the power that Corfu had created. Corinth had established many colonies in the west with the purpose being to secure the commercial transactions. Corfu managed to develop the economical status with its own commercial fleet, establishing also colonies by itself. After a while, Corfu became totally independent from its Metropolis (Corinth). Corfu Town had two ports, the port of Alcinoos, that was located on the market place opposite to Epirus, and the port of Illycos, where Perama is now located.

In 427 BC. Corfu established a democracy. The system of democracy was vulnerable; it was dependant on the successful battles or defeats of the Athenians. When the Athenians won, democracy was stable in Corfu, but when they were defeated, the oligarchics came up and developed their activities. Their goal was to recall the neutrality of the island in order to gain as much profits as they could, especially in war times. On the contrary, the democratic part supported the Athenian war, which led to the catastrophic civil war in Corfu.

At the end of the Peloponnesian War (404 BC.) the Athenians introduced a Federation including the naval cities against the Spartans. Corfu participated by the side of the Athenians. The Spartans decided to dominate the island, but the Athenians sent their forces and they succeeded in displacing them. After some years, Corfu was still having civil conflict and a lot of crusaders conquered the island. The Illyrian pirates tried to besiege Corfu, in 229 BC. The weaken Corfiots were forced to compromise with the crusaders.

As a result, Corfu was exhausted and unable to deal with the problems from the wars. The island got through under the administration of the Romans in order to avoid the pirates.

Roman Administration (229 BC – 395 AC) in Corfu

Since Corfu asked for Roman protection, the Romans gave to the island free privileges. It had autonomy but it was not totally independent. The Romans considered Corfu to be allied with them, so the island was allotting the ports and the navy. The Corfiots had judicial independence, and also the right to produce coins without the emperor’s head as an emblem as they had their own administration. They had not the right to decide on war or peace with other areas; in which case they needed the permission of Rome. Corfu lost the military and nautical power, as there were permanent Roman guards and roman navigation taking over the places where there were problems. But, still, Corfu island was a big commercial link between East and West.

The public baths with well-preserved mosaic were discovered in 19th century, aged around the roman times, near the seaside village in Benitses and in Acharavi.

During the reign of Constantine the Great, Corfu was under the administration of Macedonia. In 395 AC, the sons of Theodosios the Great, Arcadios and Onorios, divided the state into the East and West administrations. Corfu then was under the administration of the East Roman State. The Eastern Roman State ruled the island politically and the Pope of Rome ruled it ecclesiastically.

The orthodox christian church established in Corfu during the 1st century from the students of Apostle Pavlos, Jason and Sossipatros. Sossipatros was caught and burned because he refused to make sacrifices to the ancient religion and Jason became the first Bishop of Corfu until his death. They were both declared Saints by the church and their celebration day is on 29th of April. Their relics are buried in the church devoted to them at Anemomylos in Garitsa. There are two inscriptions of tombs at the above area.

Barbarian Invasion

The Barbarian invasion was started during the 4th century. The biggest invasion by the barbarians happened in 455 AC, with terrible catastrophic consequences for Corfu. In 550 AC, the gothic fleet and army plundered the island. That was one of the last disasters for Corfu. The Corfiots chose to make a new town for their safety between the two peaks, the former old fortress.

Byzantine period & Normans (1081 –1267)

During the Byzantine period Corfu was part of the “Thema” of Kefalonia, which included the Ionian Islands. The areas were divided in “Themata”. A general, who had absolute power and also was depended by the Emperor, administrated each “Thema”. During the 12th century the areas were divided in smaller pieces named “Oria” and “Episkepsis”. Perhaps the name of the village Episkepsi in Corfu came from that period. In 1032 The island was devastated by the Saracenes of Africa, who conquered the seaside of Illyria and burned Corfu. General Nikiforos defeated them, in order to protect his areas.

The geographical position, the fertile land and the acropolis of Corfu were the attraction for Robert Guiscard, the Norman king of Southern Italy. In 1081, Guiscard conquered the acropolis of the island. The Emperor Nikiforos sent military and nautical forces with the aid of the Venetians, to alienate and displace the Normans. In 1147 AC, Rogiro, the heir of Guiscard, conquered Corfu. Emperor Manuel II tried to liberate the island from the Normans; after a long fight on the walls of the town, the Normans were forced to pull out of the island.

Generally, since 1166 to 1267 AC, a big number of battles have followed between Byzantines, Normans and Venetians in order to conserve the island.

The first period of Venetians (1204 –1214 AC) in Corfu & Epirus Seigniory

The first Venetian domination started in 1204. The Venetians having difficulty supervising all their provinces divided Corfu into feuds. The ten feud lords signed the convention, which the Venetian demanded. The domination lasted 10 years.

Michael Komninos created the Seignory of Epirus and in 1210 conquered Corfu. In 1212 –1214, the founder broke up the relation with the Venetians and relieved the island from them. After Michael died, the new Seignior Theodore Angelo ordered the supervision of Corfu to the Commissar Ioanni Plyta. During the turbulent times between the Pope of Rome and Manfrend, the leader of Sicily and the lasts’ death by Charles D’Anjou, Corfiot feuds were given to the brave knights, Thomas and Garnier Aleman or Alamanos. Charles offered to Garnier the supervision of Corfu. In 1267 AC. Corfu came under the jurisdiction of Anjou of Naples for 1 century.

Charles D’Anjou I, expelled the Orthodox Bishop recognizing the western religion in Corfu. The orthodox part, on the other hand, protested, so Charles compromised. There was also the same feudal form with the kingdom of Naples. The Venetian consul in Corfu took the advantage of the disaffection of the people, planning to overthrow the Angevins. During the civil wars in Naples, the Corfiots, with the aid of the Venetians, managed to take over the Fortress in March of 1386. Venice was the next ruler in Corfu.

The second period of the Venetian Domination (1386 – 1797)

The second Venetian domination in Corfu lasted 4 centuries. On the 20th of May 1386, the keys of the town were given to the Venetian admiral Joanis Miani.

The establishment of the administration was exactly the same as the Metropolis in Italy in order to control the areas in every way.

Corfu was divided in four “Vailata”: Agyrou, Orous, Messis and Lefkimmi. The first two of them were under the jurisdiction of the Vailus, the person who had the administrative and judicial control, the third to the General Supervisor and the fourth to the Board of the Town. Every “Vailiki” was divided in eight areas, the Flags (bandier), which consisted of 3 to 12 villages. Corfu had also a demographic problem because of the constant Turkish invasions. Venice declared an invitation to everyone who wanted to move and live in Corfu. Cretans, Peloponnesians, people from Epirus and many Venetians were moved to Corfu. Pieces of land were given to Venetians in order to stay on the island permanently. The feudalism was being continued and a lot of taxes had to be given to the Venetians. The olive oil was the most important tax. In 1434, the Venetians started the liberation of the bondsmen. From the 16th century, the Venetians were being forced by the political reasons (Turkish invasions) to let the Greeks be added to Libro D’Oro (the golden list of the nobles). Venice started giving the administration to the local aristocrats. Since 1518, the orthodox part started to be free by any limitation of the Latin bishops, under the Papal seal.

Corfu was the most important connection of the Venetian Empire in the Adriatic Sea. The Venetians sent the most experienced architect, the engineer Francisco Ferdinando Fratelli, to organize the fortification of the island. Afterwards, the Old and New Fortresses and the castles secured Corfu as much as it was possible. Other public buildings were the Lodge (Loggia = the arcade where the nobles gathered, which was turned into a theatre during the 18th century), the granary, the customhouse, the sanitary, the orphanage and the quarantine place (lazaretto). During the Venetian domination, the Holy Relic of Saint Spyridon was brought to Corfu.

Turkish Invasions

The Turks tried many times to conquer Corfu. The most important invasion was during 25th of August to 11th of September in 1537, with no success. They caused terrible damage and they captured 7.000 Corfiots. The Turks pulled out when the Venetian and imperial forces were sent against them. On the 2nd of October 1540 the Venetians and the Turks signed a treaty of peace. In 31st of August 1571, the Turks broke the treaty and once again attacked Corfu. Eventually, they pulled out, after burning and pillaging the island.

The second great Turkish siege took place in 1716. The Turks could not give up their will to rule the Ionian Islands. On the other hand, the economy of Venice was terrible. On February of 1716, Venice sent the Saxon officer Ioannis Matheas von Schulemburg to Corfu. In May, Pasha Janoum Hotza passed through Zante and after a stop in Kefalonia, causing massive damages, arrived in the southern peninsula of Corfu, ready to attack. Panic spread created by the rumor that the Venetians had abandoned the island. Schulemburg, with the aid of the experienced Corfiot officers, tried to organize the defenses. On 8th of July, the Turkish landing troops started getting through Corfu and besieged lots of villages. On 22nd of July the allied forces arrived in the island. On 5th of August, the Pasha asked the Corfiots to surrender. Schulemburg was negative and his decision to attack was a right one. The next day, a great storm broke out with terrible consequences for the Turkish fleet. The 10th of August, saw confusion in the Turkish camp, the next day on 11th of August, the Turks were falling back out of Corfu abounding all their weapons, animals and munitions. The people attributed this fact to the saving intervention of Saint Spyridon, who turned the fate of Corfu against the conquerors. In remembrance of the 11th of August, Corfu celebrates, with the honored procession of the Holy Relic of Saint Spyridon accompanied by all Philharmonic Orchestras of the island.

The last period of the Venetians (1669-1797) in Corfu

As we have mentioned, after the Turkish siege of Crete, a big number of Cretans refugees came to Corfu. Later, the refugees asked to be part of the Corfiot social classes. The Cretans brought valuable icons, utensils, vestments and Holy Relics, in order to be guarded to the Corfiot churches. The Cretan artists were also the best influence for the beginning of the development of the Ionian Art. Corfu, as well as the rest of the Ionian Islands assimilated the Cretan culture and purchased, in combination with the European influences, to develop its own unique civilization. The Corfiots received the West Enlightenment and opened the way for the new Hellenism. In the end of 17th century, the middle class obtained social power. They created all the right conditions, under their economical status, for the flourishing of culture and art (theatre, music, literature etc). Moreover, they demanded their own Libro D’Oro. The nobles disapproved of this demand. The class struggle started and also the common people were being raised against the nobles. At that time the robbers in the islands were thousands and the usury was a curse. In 1640 a big revolt took place. The pirates were also ruling a big part of the economy and many families of the middle class became rich. The olive oil was still the main income of the island, as well as the salt and the oak-trees.

An important intellectual development started and many Corfiots were educated in Universities. Thomas Flaginis created the Flanigan School, which was left as a legacy to Venice. The first contact with the European Enlightening had started.

At the end of 18th century, the Venetian State fell apart. The Venetians could not realize that a lot of changes were coming and they did not pay attention to the defense of their state. The war between France and Austria forced the two sides to intrude the Venetian borders. The residents of the Venetian domination preferred the French, because of the idealism that was growing up during the French Revolution.

French Occupation of Corfu (1797-1799)

In June of 1796, the French occupied Verona. 18th of April 1797 saw Napoleon Bonaparte and the Emperor of Austria decide that Venice should be limited around the Venetian sea and the Ionian Islands. After a bloody defeat of the French in Verona, Napoleon, under this motive, turned against the Venetians. On 1st of May 1797, Napoleon declared war and on the 12th of May, Venice surrendered. The last commander of Venice in Corfu was Charles Avrilios Widmann. The Venetians were incapable of defending their colonies. Napoleon had the advantage to take over all of the colonies. He also sent the Corsican Commander Enselm Gentili. On the 27th of June, the French fleet arrived in Corfu, which was being welcomed with enthusiasm, as Gentili declared that the French had come to establish Democracy. The temporary Town Hall, which was established as the greatest authority, consisted of all the social classes and religions. Eight committees were created with executive powers: 1) Public Security, 2) Health, 3) Provisions, 4) Commerce and Art, 5) Economical, 6) Police, 7) Public Education and 8) Military. The 5th of July saw the Tree of Freedom planted in the square of Corfu and the flag of Saint Marc (of the Venetians) was burned and replaced by the 3coloured flag, symbol of the equality and brotherhood’s liberty. On 6th of July, the Libro D’Oro was also burned as well as the aristocratic diplomas, titles and emblems. After that, the nobles were being accused of the disaster of the Tree. On 1st of November 1797, the adjutant of Napoleon, Evgenios Beauharnais, arrived in Corfu and, during the same day, the annexation of the island to the French Democracy was announced by the temporary Town Hall. Napoleon ordered the administrative division of the islands. The prefecture of Corfu included the islands of Paxos and Antipaxos, Othoni, as well as Vouthroto and Parga of the mainland.

The prefectures had a complete system of administration. There was also a committee of 5 people, which administrated the following parts of each prefecture: Commerce and Art, Police, Games, Theatre, National Guard, Public buildings, Water reservoir, Military settlements, supplying, furniture and foodstuff’s, Health and Prison supervision, Public and private schools, Religion and Customs. The prefectures divided into municipalities and a Commissar was ruling the administration. Corfu Town was divided in 4 departments: Greece, France, Epirus and Commerce. Corbignu was the General Commissar of the prefecture of Corfu and Gentili was the General Commissar of all prefectures. The French organized the establishment of the public or “National” Schools, where the French language was being taught, they confiscated the Latin church lands, they established the National Library, ordering the first librarian, Ioanni Marmora (30th of May, 1798) and the National Printing House (11th of August, 1798) with the French Director Jounene.

The enthusiasm of the Ionian people for the French administration was getting lower. The heavy taxes, the contemptuous attitude to religion, the traditions, the customs, as well as the bandit action of the French soldiers were the most important reasons. The disaffection of the nobles was also growing in conspiracy with the Austrians. In 1797, Italy was assigned to Austria under the convention between France and Austria. The residents of the Ionian Islands became alarmed, as the enemies of the French occupation declared that the rest of the colonies would follow the same way. On 28th of July the new Commissar, Comeyra, tried to reorganize the administration of Corfu, but soon J. Briche had replaced him. On 15th of January 1798, the General Louis-Francois-Jean Baron de Chabeau replaced Gentili and exiled the former Russian Officer, Andrew Polyla and the Catholic Bishop, Francisco Fenzi under the motivation of the Ionians in revolt against the French.

French & Ali Pasha

During 1797, Ali Pasha was after a friendship with the French for the benefit of his interests. He convinced them of his sincerity, but the French did not wish to covenant the land in Epirus to him. On the other hand, the General Gentili allowed the Turkish boats to pass through the narrow way along Corfu, which was not allowed by the convention of Passarovich (1718). On 25th of October 1798, Ali Pasha besieged Vouthroto, the French moved from the mainland to Corfu and Ali became the conqueror of Epirus.

Russian – Turkish Occupation

On 3rd of January 1799, the Turkish signed the alliance with the Russians. The French were in the Mediterranean and they had started a crusade in Egypt. During that time, propaganda against the “atheists” French was being raised motivating the people to war against them. A declaration of the head officer of the Russian fleet, Theodore Ousakof, was also passed around the Ionian Islands. According to this, the Tsar Pavlos I and the Sultan Selim III, would liberate the islands and the Ionian people could choose the administration and the privileges would be respectfully accepted. There were also declarations from other parts, written by Constantine Stamati (4th of October 1798) and Emile Gaudin (22nd of November 1798), which motivated the Ionian people to resist and not to believe the propaganda, thereby helping the French. The possession of the Ionian Islands started from Kythira on the 7th of October, following onto Zakynthos on the 23rd of October and Kefalonia on the 19th of October. The people in Ithaca convinced the French garrison to move to Corfu. Lefkas was also occupied in 17th of November. Corfu was the only island left. The French ordered a military law: all the citizens between 16-50 years old should participate in the war, they forced the wealthy Corfiots to pay taxes, they used their animals, and they disarmed the people of the town. The residents of Mantouki in Corfu resisted. The French besieged and burned the village. They moved onto Platytera, where the people also resisted and the French besieged the monastery and after pillaging it, they burned it. The rest of the people were being disarmed with no any resistance. The French destroyed the area of Saint Charalambos, (which was close to the main entrance of the town), in order to avoid the use of the buildings from the conquerors. They fortified the small island of Vidos, which they named “the Island of Peace” (Ile de la Paix). The people of the villages instigated the raising of the Russian flag. The Russians suggested to the French that they vacate the island, but they refused. The starvation devastated the French. On the 23/25th February, Admiral Ousakof declared a general attack. By the 1st of March the alliance besieged the island of Vidos and on the 20th of February – 4th of March 1799 the two sides signed the convention. The French gave up and the Russian flags were being raised on the Old Fortress. French and Russians fraternized and the French left from Corfu in the end of March.

The nobles and the middle class created a temporary government. The nobles’ privileges were been re-strengthened. On the 24th of April, the generals of the alliance announced that the Ionian Islands would be a united state with a central government –Senate-, which it would take place in Corfu. The Senate would organize the temporary constitution of the state. The presidency of the Senate was given to Angelo Orio. The Senate had the judicial and administrative power, as well as the military and police control. There was a separate government and cashier in each island, but the central cashier was established in Corfu. The national courts could use the Greek language. The Senate decided (9/21st of June) to send the ambassadors, 4 from Corfu, 2 from Lefkas, 2 from Kefalonia, 2 from Zante, 1 from Ithaka and 1 from Kythira, adjoined by the president of the Senate, Angelo Orio, who was replaced after a while by the count Spyridon Georgios Theotokis, to go to Constantinople in order to thank the sovereigns and receive the approval of the constitution. The Ionians asked for the recognition of the political liberty and the independence of the Islands, as the residents had helped the alliance to defeat the French. Though, they understood that the Turks wanted to control and possess the islands.

Ionian State (1800-1807) & the second French occupation (1807-1814)

On the 21st of March 1800, Russia and Turkey agreed, according to the Treaty of Constantinople, that the Ionian Islands would be a united state. It would be called “State of the Seven United Islands”, the nobles would administrate them and the constitution would be acceptable. The Fortresses would be given to the State, but Russian and Turkish army would remain in the islands till the end of the war. The islands would have the obligation to pay taxes to the Turks. The flag of the Ionians would have blue colour and a winged lion with a raised foot, a bible and 7 arrows tied with ribbon, symbolizing the 7 islands, and also the year of 1800. The constitution was named “Byzantine” and was consisted of 37 articles, but it was increased the privileges of the nobles. In 1/13 of January 1801, the official raising of the flag took place in Corfu. After a while, the revolution of the people started. The provocative attitude of the Turks to the unarmed citizens, lead to bloody episodes and the authorities asked for the help of the Russians. The Russian commander Charles Hastfert asked the Turks to take away their forces. On the other hand, the announcement that the Russians would pull out of the islands created a panic in the residents. In 2/14th of July, the president of the Senate, Spyridon Theotokis from Corfu, sent a message asking the Russians to stay. On 13/25th of August, the administration of the fortresses given to two Senates. The middle class moved to conspire against the nobles-landowners. Theotokis introduced the “Emergent Board of Public Security” calling the middle class to select their representatives. On 16/28th of November, the “Honest Board of the Town and Villages of Corfu” became the new authority; the nobles signed the Constitution, in which the unification of the people was achieved by reducing the privileges of the minority and the recognition of all the citizens. At the beginning of March 1802, a British warship landed soldiers, who united with the State. The Turks asked for the reintroduction of the former constitution. Russia sent an army and gave orders to the ambassador of the Emperor, George Mocenigo, to supervise the situation.

On the 23rd of May 1802 (25th of March 1802 –Convention of Amienne), France, Austria and Spain recognized the Ionian State. On 20th of August, Mocenigo arrived in Corfu in order to reorganize the state. On 23rd of November 1803, the new constitution was introduced, which consisted of 212 articles. The hereditary aristocracy was abolished. A new kind of nobleness was established, dependent of the income or the education. The bounds by oath were also established and the personal freedoms and the inviolate of the family asylum were recognized.

On the 25th of December, Turkey cut off relations with Russia and asked the Ionians to avoid co-operation with them. The French allied with the Turks. The Ionians went into war side by side with the Russians. Despite the Treaty of friendship was signed between the Ionians and Ali Pasha, he wanted to conquer the islands with the help of Napoleon – who promised the islands to him- and organized a war operation against the Ionians. Eventually, the Ionian State was allotted to the French under the Treaty of Tilsit, on the 7th of July 1807. On the 1st of September 1807, the French Commander, Cesar Berthier, cancelled the Ionian State. In 8/20th of August 1807, the French army arrived in Corfu. Berthier accepted the administration ofthe islands from the Russian Admiral Seniavin and declared that the Ionian State would be part of the French Empire and the residents would be citizens under the jurisdiction of the French Emperor and the king of Italy. The flag would be the same as France and the Greek religion would be the main one. Napoleon did not change the administration of the islands but he ordered a general commander, the Imperial Commissar, who would participate in every council of the Senate, he would confirm the decisions, he would run the administrative and financial matters and he would supervise the High Police. After a while, Napoleon replaced Berthier with Francis Donzelot, to protect Corfu in case of a British invasion. In the meantime, the British fleet had isolated the Ionian Sea causing problems to the commercial navigation of the islands and British agents in Corfu increased the disaffection against the French. In the beginning of October 1809, the British fleet, with the Admiral Oswald arrived in Zakynthos and declared that they intended to establish an independent administration and the British were allied to the Ionians, but not conquerors. There was a powerful French force in Corfu, so the British besieged Zakynthos, Kefalonia, Ithaka, Kythira and Lefkas. The island of Corfu was blockaded for the British products. The residents of the rest of the Ionian Islands started having a normal life under the British protection, after the stop of the blockade. General Airey (1810) replaced Oswald and then Campbell (1813) followed. Corfu was in a bad situation. The blockade continued on from the 10th of November 1810. In 22nd of March, the British besieged the island of Paxos and Parga on the mainland. The residents of Parga thought that the British would liberate them from the Turks, but it did not happen. The political changes in France during 1814 (resignation of Napoleon, Loudovic the XVIII became the king) influenced Corfu. On 23rd of April 1814, the French had to pullout from the island. On 1st of May, the General Donzelot was ordered to give up Corfu. The Senate, which considered that the foreign forces were only temporary, and the Ionian State would still existed, decided to ask the Board of Vienna for independence, with the help of Ioannis Kapodistrias, who was the minister to the Tsar. On 26th of June 1814, Corfu was allotted to the British General Campbell.

During the French occupation, the Ionian Islands were being organized; the education and social services were being developed. In 1808, the Ionian Academy was established for the development of agriculture, industry, commerce, science and art. The Ionian Academy offered remarkable activities in many sections. New species were developed in agriculture and the vaccinations against some diseases, such as diphtheria, were discovered. The Art School was also established and prizes were given. The French built national schools in Karousades, Scripero and Lefkimmi. The Corfu Town in nowadays is the work of the French, who planned the lay out for military reasons. They also constructed the two parallelogram buildings in the Lower square, the famous Esplanade and Liston, work of the architect, Mathiew De Lessers, who constructed the boulevard Rivoli in Paris. Mathiew De Lessers was also the father of the famous architect, Ferdinand De Lessers, who constructed the Suez Canal in 1880-88. The Esplanade and the Liston were constructed in the place of the old building of the nobles during the Venetian occupation, where the middle class and the bondsmen were not allowed to enter, but only those who’s the names were written in the list: Lista, Libro D’Oro. That is the reason for the name of the place, Liston.

British Protectorate 1814-1864

Russia recommended the independence and the neutralism of the State of the Ionian Islands, under the protection of Great Britain, Austria, Prussia and Russia. Austria suggested that the Ionian Islands should be included in its possession as with all the Venetian lands. After the defeat of Napoleon, the British asked for total possession of the Ionian Islands, but the Russians were still supporting the independence of them. Eventually, on the 17th of November 1815, the proxies Castlereagh and Wellington of Great Britain and Razoumovski and Kapodistrias of Russia signed a Treaty, in which the Ionian Islands would become an independent and free State, named as the “United States of the Ionian Islands”, under the exclusive and direct protection of Great Britain. The lord great Commissioner would be responsible for the general administration. The British would also keep military garrison in the islands. Thomas Maitland arrived on the Corfu in 16th of February 1816 and became the first Commissioner. He was high-handed, very nationalist with the only purpose to serve the interests of Great Britain, having a contempt attitude to the Greek population. He stopped the Liberal opposition and he ordered the Constitution of 1817. According to this, there would be a Senate and Parliament, but the Commissioner would have the total control of the authorities. The flag would be the same old one of the Ionian State; the Greek language would be the official language.

The establishment of the illiberal character of the* institute and the tyrannical governing of Maitland caused a big disaffection. Ioannis Kapodistrias wrote a protest document to the British Minister of the colonies, Lord Barthurst, but Maitland was justified. On 23rd of February 1821, 57 eminent Zakynthians from the Liberal part reported to the king of England, George IV, asking for the change of the Constitution. The movement was put down and the British General Sir Frederick Adams, (who was the next Commissioner until 1831 after Maitland died), ordered a military law. The leader of the military forces, Alexander Whittford, took in charge temporarily as Commissioner. In November of 1832, the liberal and philhellene, Lord Nugen, came after but he resigned in 1835. Afterwards, the next Commissioner, General Baron Sir Howard Douglas, was conservative and conflicted against the Liberal Ionian politics. In 1839, Andrew Moustoksidis, a Deputy of Parliament, sent a petition asking for the freedom of the press and the system of the elections. The British Minister of the colonies, Russell, rejected the requests of Moustoksidis, but he suggested proceedings for a better liberal governing. In 1841, Sir Alexander Stewart Makenzie took charge but he resigned in 1843. Seaton followed, who was liberal and an expressionist of the new line of the British policy. He allowed the establishment of political clubhouses, political gatherings, the typing houses and he allowed the import of the Greek newspapers in the Ionian Islands. He was also interested in the education and agriculture and established the corps of the field guards. The most important decision was the establishment of the liberty of the press, on the 22nd of May 1848. During the liberal changes, Seaton divided the islands in municipalities and ordered Local Boards. In 1849, Eric George Ward replaced Seaton, but he was reactive. He obligated the Ionian State to pay 25.000 pounds sterling for the preservation and salary of the British garrisons and minimized the 15.000 to 13.000 pounds sterling for the expenses of the Commissioner. In the meantime, the political turbulence had started. In 1846, the Ionians organized the national anniversary of the 25th of March. On the 3rd of September, organized movements motivating the people against the British. The inexperience and bad organization, the betrayal of the plans and the direct reaction of the deputy Evorton resulted in the failure of the movement. The British reduced the circulation of the newspapers; they exiled and sentenced to death a lot of fighters. During the political introduction of the Ionian Islands, three parts were being created due to the different political position and ideas. The “Infernals”, as the people were calling them, had identified their interests with the British protection. The “Reformers” believed that the Ionian State had little chance of conflict and the British protection was a necessity. They also believed that the constitution should be changed and reformed with more liberties. The “Radicals” believed in the total independency of the Ionian Islands and the union with Greece. The establishment of the democracy, the national liberation and the social justice, were the only purpose. In April 1852, the British Deputy Hume, accused the Commissioner Sir Henry Ward for the violence, also the stop of the liberty of press and the exile of the people. The Minister of the colonies, Pakisgton, defended Ward, saying that the Ionian Islands could not have a better attitude as the liberties that Seaton gave them and was the result of the difficult situation. In 1855, Sir John Young replaced Ward. At the end of 1856, the selection declared for a vote of the 11th Parliament. On 4/16th of February 1857, the new Parliament started. All the Deputies were shocked, when they heard that Great Britain was preparing a plan, in which the islands of Corfu and Paxos would remain under the British protection and the rest of the Ionian Islands would be united with Greece. In 1858, the British government decided to send Guillelmo Ewart Gladstone, a famous man of letters and qualified politician, in order to investigate the political situation and suggest a solution. On 24th of November 1858, Gladstone arrived in Corfu; he called the Senate and published the cause of his arrival. He also asked the people and the authorities to co-operate for the reform of the Constitution. He made a tour of the Ionian Islands, where people welcomed the union and disapproved of the protection. Young called the Parliament and announced Gladstone as the new Commissioner and the fact that the Queen Victoria believed in the necessity of the reform of the Constitution. On 5th of February 1859, Gladstone announced to the Parliament of Corfu, the refusal of the Queen regarding the union of the Ionian Islands and presented the reform of the Constitution. On 4/16th of February, the Parliament voted negatively and the mission of Gladstone ended. Sir Eric Storks was appointed the new Commissioner and was the last Commissioner of the Ionian Islands. The Parliament did not recognize the right to begin the speech, but only to the president of the Senate. Then Storks stopped the works of the Parliament for 6 months. He also found unconstitutional the demand of the union. The Parliament reacted again and he stopped its works once more. The British started to discuss and make decisions for the situation in the Parliament of Lords and the House of Commons. Some of them agreed and some disagreed with the union. In the Parliament of Lords, Lord Gray said that the protection was no longer advantageous and in the House of Commons, the Deputy Maguire said that the system was not right and they could not drawn the free voice of the people, since they signed the Treaty in order to protect them. On the other hand, the British did not want the union, as the British policy was focused to the neutralism of Turkey and worried about the extension of the Greek kingdom. It was opposite to the external policy that king Othon of Greece used. In the meantime, the friends of British in Ionian suggested the establishment of the “Eptanesian Seigniory” which would include the Ionian Islands, Epirus and Thessaly, under the seigniory of the Queen’s Victoria son, Alfred. In the beginning of 1862, the British Prime Minister, Palmerston, informed the Greek Charge d’affaires in England, Harilaos Trikoupis, that as long as Othon was reigning, the Ionian Islands would not be united with Greece. On 10th of December, after an official announcement of the British Minister of External Affaires, -Russel- Harilaos Trikoupis acknowledged to the Greek Government that the Queen would accept the union as long as the king of her preference would be selected. So, Great Britain secured its influence in Greece while succeeding in the guarantee for the neutralism of the Turkish Empire. Eventually, after a lot of negotiations, in 22nd of January, the B’ National Assembly decided to declare Alfred, the son of Queen Victoria, as the King of Greece. Victoria suggested that they could not select Alfred, since the Treaty of the 3rd of February 1830 did not permit the descendants of the royal families of the protective alliances to be selected. On 18th of March 1863, the National Assembly of Athens decided to declare the son of the prince of Denmark, George, to accept the crown. On 21st of May 1863, George did accept the Greek crown under the terms of the Union of the Ionian Islands with Greece. On 1/13th of July 1863, the Treaty between Great Britain, Russia, France and the King of Denmark was signed, promising the annexation of the Ionian Islands. Eventually, on 14th of November 1863, the representatives of the 5 forces, Great Britain, France, Russia, Austria and Prussia, signed in London the Treaty, for the resignation of the protection of the British, and was accepted the recognition of the Union of Ionian Islands with Greece, under neutrality, was a reality. Accordingly the protocol of 25th of January 1864 stopped the minimizing of the military forces that Greece was keeping and also the neutrality in Corfu and Paxos. On 11/29th of March 1864, Greece and Great Britain, France and Russia signed a Treaty in London validating the terms of the Treaty of 1863 and settled all the matters. On 21st of May / 2nd of June 1864, the Commissioner Eric Storks gave the Ionian Islands to Thrasivoulo Zaimi. The Greek flag was raised on the Fortresses. On 24th of April 1864, the royal decree was issued for the elections of the Ionians, who would participate in the National Assembly. Eighty-four Ionians were being selected under a secret and total vote; they took the oath and they started participating in the Parliament.

At the beginning of the British protection, the Commissioner was living in the Old Fortress of Corfu. Maitland asked that the Commissioner should be living in an imposing building. The decision for the construction of the Palace was made on the 30th of November 1818, according to the records of the Ionian Senate. In April of 1818, the Battalion of Saints Michael and George was established in Great Britain as the Order of the Ionian Islands, Malta and the British, who they would serve the interests of Great Britain. The Palace is called by the name of the two Saints. The architect, Sir George Whitmore, took over the supervision and construction of the building in Corfu, as well as the design of Upper and Lower Square and the Cistern of Maitland in Upper Square. The stones were being transferred from Malta and the wood was transferred from Italy. The foundation stone was walled on the 23rd of April 1819, the Celebration day of Saint George. The official inauguration took place in April of 1823, when also the Commissioner moved into his new residency.

In 28th of October 1818, the Parliament of the Ionian State decided on new coins of the State. The new national bronze coins were equivalent to the British coins and they had on one side the emblem of the Ionian State with the cyclic inscription “Ionian State 1819” and on the other side the nymph Brittannia sitting and watching on the left with the cyclic inscription “Brittannia”. In 1819 the president of the Ionian Senate, Emanuel Theotokis, accepted the proposal of presidency of the Biblical Company of London to establish the Biblical Company in Corfu. In 1821, Lord Guilford organized a Botanic Garden in Corfu, with 4.000 Corfiot species, in the place where the old Monastery of the Catholic nuns of Saint Justine was. After the establishment of the Ionian Academy, in 1824, the Botanic Garden was moved to Mon Repo. During the British protection, Corfu started to develop the public works. The roads were being extended to the most of the villages, having 700 km of roads. Corfu had the thickest net of roads in the Balkans.

The Corfiots were also using the water from the water tanks. The drilling of water started in Benitses and the tubes were used for the transfer of the water to the houses.

The production of olive oil was profitable and a lot of merchants got rich. The Post office of the State was also organized, under the law of 5th of June 1827 of the Parliament.

In 1826, the first Greek orthodox school for priests was established. Maitland did not allow the request by the Ionians for a University in Ithaca. On 24th of May 1824, the Senate decided for the legal establishment of the University, consisted of 4 sections: Theology, Medicine, Law and Philosophy. Lord Guilford managed the free use of the Greek language in the Ionian Academy and the School of the priests. The municipality of Corfu honored the phillelene Guilford (he was also baptized into Orthodoxy by the name of Dimitrios) for his offer, with a statue in Boscetto. After Guilford died, the use of the Greek language was minimized and the lessons were taught in Italian. In 1836, the Greek language was established again in the courts and also the records of the Parliament.

On 22nd of March 1833, the Parliament decided to create the Home for the aged, which still exists.

In 1836, three societies were been established: the Reading Society, the Agricultural Society and the Philharmonic Society of Corfu. The Reading Society was the first Greek association, which still exists. The president was the great Greek, middle classed, philosopher, Peter Knight Vrailas-Armenis, professor of the Philosophic School of the Ionian University. A lot of remarkable people of literature became members such as Dionysios Solomos, Andreas Moustoksidis, Adonios Polylas, Andreas Kalvos, Lorenzo Mavilis and Markoras. The Agricultural Society had been established for a few years aged after Greece stopped the Ionian University, but there were no people to continue the work.

The Philharmonic Society of Corfu educated the residents in music for 1 and a half century, showing the way for other new orchestras, such as the New Orchestra or the Orchestra of Manzaro, the Orchestra of Gastouri, the Orchestra of Skripero, the Orchestra of Sinarades, the Orchestraof Lefkimmi etc.

On 17th of January, the declaration of the Ionian State Bank for public recording took place in the City of London. The Ionian Bank started to work on the 2nd of March 1840. The architect Yannis Hronis constructed the building in 1845 in Corfu. In October 1981, the upper floor became a museum of the paper money.

The seventh Parliament established the Land Registry.

The eighth Parliament voted for the freedom of Press.

The most important technical and social work of the Commissioner Douglas was the reformatory (Correctional Institution). The Column of Douglas in Garitsa is a work of honor to him.

Period 1864 – 1913

Since 1864 a new period started for Corfu and the Ionian Islands, with agriculture, industry and the commerce, all flourishing. The port of Corfu was mentioned as one of the most important ports of Greece.

In 1913, the prefecture of Corfu had the first position in the production of the olive oil in Greece. Since 1905 the island has had a good yield every two years. The tests of 1908-1913 showed that the Corfiot olives could produce high quality olive oil in comparison with the best olive oil of Italy. The establishment of the Agricultural Bank and the agricultural co-operatives contributed to the commerce of the olive oil. The cattle farms were also developed.

The first factory was opened producing of playing cards and had a monopoly, which was very productive. Gradually, the industry of wine was developed and became very popular in Europe, especially in France. According to statistics in 1893, 13 steam-driven factories were functioning with 266-horse power and 259 workers, eg: 1 factory for playing cards, 7 were steam mills, 1 sharpener factory, 1 gaslight factory, 1 seed-oil factory, 1 soap factory, and 1 factory of salted meat. In 1906 the factory of Desylla produced cords, hammers etc. Corfu was the central station between Greece and Italy.

Politically, in 1899-1916, George Theotokis was an eminent personality. He was born in Doukades in 1944, graduated from the Law School of the Ionian Academy and had post-graduated in Paris. He was influenced by the French culture. Earlier in 1880, Theotokis became the Mayor of Corfu in 1883. Theotokis caused a reaction to aristocracy of the old feudalism of Corfu and although he did not belong to the noble part, he refused the policies of his social class and supported the middle class. In 1885, he was appointed Deputy of Parliament. In 1886, he was appointed Minister of Navy. In 1890 was appointed Minister of Education and in 1892 Minister of Internal Affairs. In 1899 he was appointed the Prime Minister. In 1915 was appointed Minister of Economy. He died on the 4th of January 1916.

On the 1st of October 1887, Michael Knight Theotokis from Doukades, was selected Mayor and again on the 30th of September 1895.

During their term of office as Mayors, the Porta Reale (Royal Gate) was destroyed. The construction the Port and the seaside road of Garitsa commenced.

The contribution of the Ionians, who established the Corfiot School, was important for the development of the New Greek civilization. The culture of the language and the literature was flourishing with the help of Polylas, Markoras, Kalosgouros, Hrysomalis and many others.

In Philosophy Petros Vrailas Armenis; in music Nikolaos Halikiopoulos Manzaros. In Corfu the Musical Theatre was established.

The beauty of the island was the reason for the Empress of Austria, Elisabeth. In her letter to the newspaper “Voice” in 25th of October 1891, she named Corfu as “the most beautiful island in the world”. Elizabeth admired and loved Corfu so much and the proof is the Achillion Palace.

Period 1914 – 1944

The Treaty of 29th of March 1864 presented the islands of Corfu and Paxos to neutrality, which was violated, firstly by the Italians. At the end of December 1915, Italy sent a military force to Corfu under the command of General Marro. They established Post Offices; they controlled the mail of the residents and they prevented the import of products. In December of 1915, after the fall of the Serbian military front, France had an order to besiege, temporarily and peacefully, Corfu Island in order to re-draw up the Serbian army, under the command of the French General Baumon. The alliance of Adad besieged Corfu from the 19th of December 1915 to the 10th of February 1916, moving the Serbian army to the island. The Corfiots accepted with hospitality the Serbians and they gave the Theatre for the sittings of the Serbian government. In 1915-1919, the Italian and French forces as well as the Serbians remained on the island. The Italians did not have any intention to pull out, but the British and the French government forced them to displace. In 1923, the Italians tried to besiege Corfu again. The morning of the 27th of August 1923, unknown people murdered the Italian engrave deputation on the Greek – Serbian border. Italy made an announcement asking within 24 hours the following demands:

1. The apology of the Greek people.
2. The commemoration of the dead in the Catholic Church of Athens, with all the members of the Greek government to participate.
3. The honor of the Italian flag in the Italian naval squadron, which would have shipping in Faliro.
4. The investigation of the Greek authorities adjoined by the Italian military attendant carnal Perone di San Martino, which should end within 5 days.
5. The death penalty of the guilty people.
6. The Greek government should pay the amount of 50 million Italian pounds in 5 days, as a penalty.
7. The dead should be honored with military honors in Preveza.

The Greek government responded accepting the following demands:

1. The Greeks accepted to present the apologies.
2. The commemoration
3. The honor of the Italian flag at the Embassy
4. The honor of the dead in Preveza.

On 31st of August 1923, the Italians suddenly attacked Corfu. The commander Antony Foskini asked from the Prefect of Corfu to surrender the island. The Prefect refused and he informed the government. Foskini warned him that the Italian forces would attack at 17:00 and the Corfiots refused to raise the white flag in the fortress. Six-seven thousand refugees, 300 orphans plus the military hospital were lodged in the Old Fortress, as well as the School of Police in the New Fortress. At 17:05 the Italians bombarded Corfu for 20 min. There were victims among the refugees of the old Fortress and the Prefect ordered the raising of the white flag. He also protested at the violation of the International Treaty of 1864 for the bombardment of the unfortified Town and the murder of the refugees. The Italians besieged the island and set the forces ashore. From the beginning of their possession, they started the terrorism, they inflicted hard penalties on the people who had guns, and the officers declared that their possession was permanent. There were daily requisitions of houses and they censored the newspapers. Greece asked for the interference of the society of the nations, in which Greece and Italy were members, and demanded the solution of the problem through arbitration. The Italian government refused, declaring that Greece will be possessed until the acceptance of the Italian terms. On 7th of September 1923, the ambassador’s conference in Paris ended with the evacuation of the Italian forces from Corfu, which finally happened on the 20th of September 1923 and ended on the 27th of the same month.

During the Second International War, in September of 1943, Corfu was bombarded and burned by the Germans. In September of 1939, Hitler invaded Poland. Moussolini panicked by the defeat of the Italians in Egypt and the halt of his army in Riviera, and decided as a reaction, to attack Greece. Hitler saved him from a totally disaster. Moussolini wanted to possess the Ionian Islands, which he succeeded with the help of the Germans. The Italians possessed Corfu from 28th of March 1941.

The first patriotic reaction happened on the first Sunday of November. During the procession of the Saint Spyridon, the fascist young Italian-Corfiots participated, who were provoking the students of the Greek high schools. When the procession arrived in the Upper Square, the students started to leave whilst singing of the national songs. The “Carbinaria” and the “Finetsia” attacked and arrested many students, beating them and exiled some of them to the island of Othonous.

The Italians and the Germans bombarded Corfu in November 1840 and April 1841 causing catastrophic consequences. On Monday 26th of July 1943, the tyranny of Moussolini started to fall. The night of 8th of September, the Italians asked for truce, which was transmitted by radio. The enthusiasm of the Corfiots was unbelievable. On the 10-12th of September, the Germans tried to surrender the Italian garrison in Corfu, while the political prisoners were set free from the small island Lazaretto and also the women and children, who were kept in Achillion. The morning of 13th of September, Corfiots woke up to the disasters of the war. The air raids continued the whole day bombarding the port, the Fortresses and strategic points. During the night of 14th of September, the most catastrophes happened in the Jewish parts of Saint Fathers and Saint Athanasios, the Court House, the Ionian Parliament, the Ionian Academy, -in which the library was lodged-, the Schools of Middle Education, the hotels Bella Venezzia, the Custom Office the manor-houses and the theatre. There were also terrible disasters in the House of the aged people, the House of the orphans and the Psychiatric Clinic, as they could not shelter anywhere else. During the same night, the Germans bombarded the prison, but the people opened the doors and the prisoners managed to escape. The people of Corfu found shelter in the Church of Saint Spyridon, which had remained undamaged. The Germans occupied the island from 25th of September 1943 to the 10th of October 1944. During that time, many Italians had been killed or injured and around 2000 were transported to the concentration camps; a lot of people died by starvation and the Germans exterminated the Israelite Community, which the members were over 2000 people. The morning of the 10th of October 1944, the Germans pulled out from the island. That was the last act of the possession of the Second International War. Fortunately, Corfu did not meet the civil laceration, which blooded Greece, until 1949. The Ionian breeze softened slowly the bad memories and a new Corfu started to be built among the ruins.